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Questions 28–40

Read the text below and answer Questions 28–40.

Roman Roads

A
The long straight roads built by the Romans have, in many cases, become just as famous in history as their greatest emperors and generals. Building upon more ancient routes and creating a huge number of new ones, Roman engineers were fearless in their plans to join one point to another in as straight a line as possible, whatever the difficulties in geography and the costs in manpower. Consequently, roads required bridges, tunnels, viaducts, and many other architectural and engineering features to create a series of breathtaking but highly useful monuments, which spread from Europe to eastern parts of the Roman empire.

B
The Romans did not invent roads, but, as in so many other areas, they took an idea which went back as far as the Bronze Age and extended that concept, daring to squeeze from it the fullest possible potential. The first and most famous great Roman road was the Via Appia, or Appian Way. Constructed from 312 BCE, and covering 196 kilometres, it linked Rome to ancient Capua in Italy in as straight a line as possible and was appropriately known to the Romans as the Regina Viarum or ‘Queen of Roads’. Much like a modern highway, it bypassed small towns along the way and largely ignored geographical obstacles that would have led to better extended to 569 kilometres in length.

C
The network of public Roman roads covered over 120,000 kilometres. Besides the roads which supplied the army with food and equipment, other major roads and highways helped commerce between traders and rich Roman towns and cities. This vast road infrastructure is one of the most impressive aspects of Roman civilization and demonstrates its authority and ambition. Roads were built in a direct line and engineered with a high degree of skill to ensure that they would be durable and efficient. In addition, each major route had a name and a measured distance, such as the Via Appia takes its name from Appius Claudius Caecus.

D
To achieve the objective of constructing the shortest routes possible between settlements, Roman engineers took a very direct approach and aimed for extreme straightness. Tunnels were bored through hills, bridges were built over rivers and viaducts were used to cross valleys. Engineers even laid roads on embankments to raise them above flood levels. The importance of these roads to the Romans is clear in the fact that many were built and rebuilt over and over again, with different layers of materials ensuring their durability. Some roads were so well built that they remain in use today, often hidden beneath modern roads, and in some cases, forming the basis for entire national road networks that have evolved over 800 years.

E
Major roads were around a standard 4.2 metres wide, which was enough space for two vehicles to pass each other. First a trench was dug in the earth, and a layer of large stones was used to form the foundation. This was followed by a substantial deposit of smaller broken materials – often crushed brick was used for this purpose, and on top of this, a layer of fine gravel was added. This upper section of the road was referred to as the ‘metalling’ and was often surfaced with blocks or slabs. Mountain roads might also have ridges running across the surface of the slabs, to give animals better grip, and have ruts cut into the stone to guide wheeled vehicles.

Roads were purposely inclined slightly from the centre down to the kerb to allow rainwater to run off along the sides. Many also had parallel ditches that collected the runoff and formed a drainage canal on each side of the road. A path of packed gravel for pedestrians typically ran alongside the road, varying in width from 1 to 3 metres. Separating the path from the road were the kerb stones, which were regular upright slabs. Busier stretches of the main road had areas where those could pull over, and some had stopping points for travellers and their animals. Milestones were also set up at regular intervals along the road and these often recorded who was responsible for the upkeep of that section of the road and what repairs had been made.

F
Lasting symbols of the imagination of Roman engineers are the many arched bridges and viaducts that are still standing today that helped these roads achieve their straight-line goal. The Romans built to last, and the piers of bridges which crossed rivers and valleys were often built with a type of cement that used massive durable blocks of stone, while the upper parts might be built of stone blocks strengthened with iron clamps. Perhaps the most impressive bridge was the Trajan’s Bridge over the Danube. Spanning 32.1 metres, it had 4 massive semicircular arches, one of which, stretching 31.2 metres, remains remarkable. However, most block-arch bridges had to be restored multiple times after earthquakes, it is now having to undergo restoration work to repair its structure.

Such was the engineering and surveying skill of the Romans that many of their roads have provided the basis for hundreds of today’s routes across Europe and the Middle East. Many roads in Italy and other countries still follow these Roman routes, and some ancient bridges, such as at Tre Ponti in Venice, still carry road traffic today.

C18 READING TEST 3 GT

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Roman Roads

Roman Roads

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Questions 38 - 40

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